Chapter 18 - The Atlantic System - 1550 - 1800

     The Atlantic System was a trading network that moved people and goods around the Atlantic Basin after 1500. Many of those who moved goods were charter companies, which consisted of investors who paid for shares of the company in order to control the monopoly on trade of a particular commodity in the West Indies colonies. The overall population of the colonies in the West Indies grew because new people came in on ships and slaves were brought from Africa.  The Dutch West India Company, formed in 1621, was one of the primary trading companies that conducted business in Africa and the Americas. It came to control much of Brazil's sugar and seized ports in the country. The Dutch revived sugar's status as an important crop and made it one of the largest products of the West Indies.

The Atlantic Basin (the Atlantic Ocean)

     Large plantations were built to grow sugarcane. They required lots of slaves to work and messed up the environment pretty badly through deforestation and soil exhaustion (no nutrients are left in soil if you just keep growing the same thing over and over again). These plantations were run by men who formed the plantocracy - the group of people who owned most of the slaves and the land in the colonies.
     Slaves were forced to work in terrible conditions, some working up to eighteen hours a day at the height of the sugar-producing season. Everyone had a job, even if it wasn't working in the fields. Poor nutrition and accidents caused many deaths, requiring additional slaves to be brought in from Africa to replace those that plantation owners had lost. Slaves rebelled because of the bad conditions, most notably during the Tacky Slave Rebellion of 1760 in Jamaica. The slaves attacked plantations after they had broken into a fort and seized weapons, wanting manumissions (grants of freedom). Maroons, runaway slave colonies, began to form, and soon there were many all black communities in the West Indies.

Triangle Trade

     Large financial institutions allowed merchants to act even if they were far from home - the beginnings of capitalism. Mercantilism, on the other hand, promoted overseas trade only between the mother country and the colony, keeping the rest of the world out of the loop. The Middle Passage, however, was open to anyone. It shipped slaves from Africa to the Americas. Triangle Trade was established between continents: the 13 colonies sent rum to Africa, where slaves then went to the West Indies and rum and molasses was shipped to New England (Europe was also involved - they wouldn't miss out on their colonies' trading!).
     Back in Africa, the Songhai of western Sudan became important in trans-Saharan trade but were destroyed by Morocco. Their trading position was taken over by the Hausa and Bornu. Rulers controlled the slave trade, sparing their own people and sending prisoners of war away to the colonial slave markets before sending their own people. The African-Muslim slave trade was 1/4 the size of the African-New World slave trade, but it lasted longer, with most slaves that went to Muslim countries becoming servants or soldiers.

Chapter 17 - American Colonial Societies - 1530 - 1770

     The Columbian Exchange, set up after Columbus' voyages to the Americas, brought in new people and goods. English and French colonies sprung up in North America, bringing with them diseases that the natives had no resistance to. Disease wiped out many native populations and made taking over easier for the incoming Europeans.
     Although Christianity was imposed on them, the Amerindians kept practicing their religions in secret. Some newcomers protected them, such as Bartolome de las Casas, who defended Amerindian's rights in Mexico. Overall, the Amerindians were suppressed by viceroys (colonial leaders)  who forced them into economiendas, or grants of labor to land owners. The mita required that 1/7 of all adult male Amerindians had to work for two to four months in factories or on farms. Portugal forced the Amerindians into slavery, often working in mines or growing sugar and tobacco.
     Some different people groups:

• Creoles - Europeans born in the New World
• Mestizos - 1/2 Amerindian and 1/2 European
• Mullatos - 1/2 African and 1/2 European

     In North America, indentured servants worked to pay off debts while slaves were brought in from Africa to work indefinitely (more on that in the next chapter).
     The groups of colonists we are most familiar with are the Puritans and the Pilgrims. The Puritans wanted to purify the teachings of the Church of England, so they formed the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 after sailing from England. The Pilgrims split away from the Church of England entirely and went to the New World, landing in Plymouth in 1620.
     *Side note: The Iroquois Confederacy formed from five tribes (six in 1722) who allied with the Dutch and then the English when the English took New Amsterdam (New York). They were a voice for the tribes of the area whenever colonial leaders met.*
     From 1534 to 1542, Jacques Cartier explored Canada, and in 1608, New France (Quebec) was formed. They relied heavily on fur trading and eventually were taken over by the English in 1763. Since they had a small population and limited resources, the French relied on political and military power, which they lost when the English took over America east of the Mississippi River.
     The latter half of the 1700's was a time of rebellion and social unrest. Tupac Amaru II of Peru led an Inca rebellion against the Spanish and was executed in 1781. In the North, England had already limited colonists' trading by passing the Navigation Acts of 1651-73 when they started to pass more laws and taxes for the 13 colonies. New York and Massachusetts overthrew their British governors and politics in the colonies remained confrontational. England's defeat of France and weakening of Spain in 1770 essentially showed that they were the dominant power and readied France (but not Spain) to aid the colonists in the revolution.

Review for the Chapter 14/15 Test

     All of the information provided here will likely be on the test (my class was told what to expect during the code yellow).

• The Bubonic Plague killed nearly 1/3 of people in Europe. It was brought to the continent by rats coming from Mongol lands. Because of the plague, Europe's population in 1400 was equal to its population in 1200.
• Marco Polo traveled from Venice in 1271 to visited China and Kublai Khan.
• 1492 was a momentous year because of Columbus' voyage to the Americas, Iberia's conquest of Grenada, and the expulsion of Jews and Muslims from Iberia.
• Significant developments were made in this period in ecology (antipollution laws, water mills), politics (expulsion of Jews and Muslims, conquest of Grenada, lands claimed in the New World, the Magna Carta) and in culture (the Renaissance, expanded trade, printing).
• The Latin West borrowed technologies from the east and eventually surpassed it as a trading power. 
• Strong motives and military power contributed to Iberian expansion overseas.
• The voyages to the New World were built on 1) urban trade revivals 2) merchant-ruler alliances 3) struggles with Islam and 4) curiosity.
• The Iberian kingdoms have a special history because of Christian expansion (and thus the expulsion of Muslim invaders) and the dynastic marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella.
• Henry the Navigator was a Portuguese prince who encouraged navigation and seafaring, although he didn't go very far from Portugal himself.
• Portugal's naval supremacy allowed them to gain control over much of the Indian ocean and increase their trading power.

Good luck!

Chapter 16 - Europe - 1500 - 1750

     In the 1500's, the papacy gained power and became more corrupt, with priests selling forgiveness of sins. Martin Luther started the Protestant Reformation in 1519 to oppose this act. He said that faith got you to Heaven, not wealth or acts. John Calvin, another big name in the Reformation, thought people were "predestined for Heaven." 

     In response to Luther's teachings, the Catholic Reformation clarified theology and reformed the training of priests. Philip II of Spain used the Spanish Inquisition (Catholic Reformation) to further Catholicism in his own country and abroad. France, another key player in global politics, allowed for the freedom to choose which church you followed. England, on the other hand, was largely guided by the king's choice. Henry VIII switched the country from Catholicism to Protestantism in order to legally divorce his wife.

Note the "Burnt for Witchcraft"

     It was around this time that the witch hunts started occurring. The Reformations and the overall turn to religious views increased suspicion of people practicing witchcraft and pagan religions, and many people were burned at the stake for allegedly being witches (or wizards). Burning is the punishment most often associated with witchcraft, but a total of around 35,000 people died in many different ways as a result of the witch hunts. Curiously, witch hunts did not end until well into the 1700's, and in some countries (especially where tribes are still an active part of the country's government) witch hunts still occur. 

     The Scientific Revolution was an intellectual movement in Europe that began with advances in astronomy but soon expanded to form the basis of all of modern science. Copernicus and his supporters (Brahe, Kepler, and Galileo) figured out that the Sun, not Earth, was the center of our solar system. Although they were disliked for their theory, they turned out to be right. The Enlightenment questioned conventional ideas of government and science (such as Earth being the center of the solar system). 

     All of these cultural revolutions allowed the bourgeoisie class to appear. They were wealthy people who specialized in commerce. (When social revolutions start to happen, we will hear more about them, so don't forget who they are.) Many bourgeoisie were involved in joint-stock companies - companies that sold stocks to decrease risks and spread benefits over a group of investors.

     In the 1590's, a century of cooler temperatures began. Although the temperatures dropped by only a few degrees, this was known as the Little Ice Age, affecting agriculture in Europe and increasing deforestation as people used more wood to heat their homes.

      The Hapsburg family of Austria became important in politics, with many of its members becoming Holy Roman Emperors, helping to stop the Ottomans from invading and increasing the power of kings. 

      King Charles I of England arrested critics and started the English Civil War in an attempt to grab power. He lost and was executed. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the English Bill of Rights of 1689 turned England into a constitutional monarchy with a balance of power (shared by the king and Parliament). Although it was the only major nation that did not maintain an army, England rose as a sea power under Henry VIII.

     Overall, high military costs drove monarchs to attempt a variety of tax and financial policies, the most successful being in the Netherlands and in England. Taxes and power expansion played a key role in the Anglo-Dutch Wars (between England and the Netherlands - England won.) and France's failed attempt to expand power by a unification with Spain. 

     

Chapter 15 - The Maritime Revolution - to 1550

         The Vikings took over Iceland in 770, Greenland in 982, and parts of America in 986. Leif Ericsson established a brief colony in Newfoundland, but it soon moved South. The Chapter doesn't mention much about them, but they were important.
     In the Pacific, Polynesians had settled Easter Island, New Zealand and Hawaii and were moving on to South America by the 1300's. In 1368, the Ming overthrew the Mongols and began sending out explorers and traders led by the Admiral Zheng He (pronounced "Jung Huh", for those who were wondering). Muslim traders became common by 1400, and the Chinese interacted with them a lot. Chinese voyages were suspended and finally cancelled in 1433 due to rulers who did not want to further trade.
     The successful trading efforts of the Iberian Peninsula took the focus of trade away from Asia and brought it westward. Spain and Portugal sponsored many voyages because of trade revivals, alliances between merchants and rulers, struggles with Islam in and around Europe, and because they were just curious.
     Henry the Navigator (King of Portugal) promoted navigation and voyages in Western Africa in the 1400's. His sailors used caravels, small ships that were able to sail quickly and maneuver around rocks, to facilitate a slave trade and visit the Gold Coast, an area in Ghana where the gold exchange occurred. Portuguese explorers such as Bartholomeu Dias, Vasco de Gama, and Christopher Columbus (No, he wasn't Spanish. Spain sponsored his more famous trips, but he was Portuguese and first sailed on expeditions for Portugal.) sailed and mapped the world, bringing back treasures from foreign lands.
     The Treaty of Tordesillas gave all land conquered in Asia and Africa to Portugal (except Brazil, which they were allowed to keep) and gave Spain the right to explore the New World. In Africa, Portugal brought Christianity to Benin and the Kongo (it wasn't renamed "Congo" until later) and saved Ethiopia from Muslim invaders. In India, the Portuguese faced trading problems in Calcut but overcame them when Calcut's economy shrank due to decreased trading opportunities.
     The Spanish were brutal conquerors. Conquistadors took over Mexico, Peru, and all of Central America. Cortes took over the Aztec, their last king, Montezuma II dying in his captivity. Soon after, Pizarro brought down the Inca after killing their king Atahualpa (even though he gave Pizarro almost all of the gold and silver in his empire). Atahualpa's brother staged a rebellion in 1536 and led a small, independent kingdom of his own until he was finally conquered by the Spaniards in 1572. Pizarro and many of the other conquistadors were killed in a civil war, but the remaining few moved on to take over other parts of the Americas.
   

Chapter 14 - The Latin West - 1200 - 1500

     The Latin West is defined by historians as the part of Europe that adhered to the Latin rites of Christianity and used Latin intellectually. It was faced with the Great Famine of 1315-17 and the Black Death in 1347 - 51, from which one in three people died.
     After the Black Death, the population began to grow again, labor was equalized, and agriculture was systematized (crop rotations between three fields began). Serfdom began disappearing after the Jacquerie rebellion in France (1358), Wat Tyler's rebellion in London (1381) and the murder of the Archbishop of Canterbury.
     As serfdom disappeared, people began using water wheels for power to grind flour and shape iron, changing the landscape as they did so. The Fourth Crusade (which really wasn't a crusade at all) took place in 1204. It was an assault on Constantinople which allowed Italy to expand its trading powers. As Italian trade expanded, German traders formed the Hanseatic League, providing an economic and defense alliance which peaked in the 1300's. Guilds, associations of merchants, formed in other areas. Trade fairs began occurring in Champagne and wool became an important trade item all over Europe.
     Banking was important in trade, and the largest banks of the time were owned by the Medici family in Florence. They started the practice of checking, which the Fugger family took over from them.
     The European Renaissance began in the mid-1300's. Universities began and practiced scholasticism, which incorporated philosophy and theology into its teachings. Arabic texts were translated, bringing Middle Eastern knowledge into Europe. The European Renaissance also brought about the humanist movement in literature, which focused on poetry, history, languages and ethics, and was able to spread in print. Johann Gutenberg invented the (European form of the) printing press, and there were 10 million books in print in Europe by 1500.
     The European Renaissance brought with it artists like Michelangelo and da Vinci and the theologian Erasmus of Rotterdam, who translated the Bible and corrected its grammar.
     Between 1378 and 1415, the Latin Church was divided when Rome and Avignon (in France) both wanted one of their citizens as Pope. This was known as the Great Western Schism. Things were not going well in politics either. In 1215, King John of England signed the Magna Carta to acknowledge that monarchs were still subject to the law, the church was independent, and nobles were in their positions by heredity. The Hundred Years' War (1337 - 1453) was a series of campaigns over France's throne involving the English and the French.  Joan of Arc fought in this war, thinking she had received a message from G-d. She was captured and burned at the stake as a witch. After the War, Parliament was formed in England, putting a final check on royals' power.
     At this time, the Jews were expelled from many countries. They were allowed to stay in Rome, however, because the pope offered them safety. Spain and Portugal were retaken by Christians, with the last Muslims being expelled in 1502.
 
   

Chapter 13 - Africa & Asia (1200 - 1500)

     The Muslim scholar Ibn Battuta recorded events from all over the Middle East, Africa, and parts of Asia. He wrote that in Africa, people hunted, gathered, herded (the Tuareg people, for example, herded camels), fished and farmed (a majority of the farming he observed was in river deltas). The Delhi Sultanate mastered irrigation, allowing it to spread farming practices further away from the major rivers in the area.
     Mali was built on Islam and trans-Saharan trade.When the Berbers caused Nubia's collapse in 1076 and the Takrur empire (in Western Sudan - it was the first sub-Saharan adopter of Islam) was defeated by Sundiata, the stage was set for the rise to power of Mansa Musa. He ruled Mali from 1312 to 1337 and estqblished a reputation of wealth for the empire.
     After two centuries of success, Mali fell to the Malinke and Tuareg (the camel herders mentioned above). While they were taking over Mali, Muslims were taking over India. When the Sultan Iltutmish ruled, he acknowledged Delhi as a Muslim empire. When he died, his daughter Raziya took over, something which was unheard of at the time. The Sultanate eventually fell due to rebellions in Northern India.
     At this time, India invented its version of the Chinese junk: the dhow. The dhow was a cargo and passenger ship designed to sail in the Arab Sea and facilitate trade, since major trading centers were rising at the time. The Swahili coast, which provided gold, Great Zimbabwe, an empire in what is now (you guessed it!) Zimbabwe (which soon became the capitol of a trading state), and Aden, a port in Yemen, became important trading centers. From Gujarat came cotton and indigo, and Cambay, Calicut, and the Strait of Malacca turned into ports.
     All of this trading brought in many new ideas. Urdu, a literary style of Hindi using Arabic characters, was introduced by travelers and traders all over India. The expansion of Islam brought with it the concept of slavery. Between 1200 and 1500, there were estimated to have been 2.5 million slaves taken out of Africa. Although slavery was on the rise, the social status of women improved, especially in India. The expansion of Islam did not necessarily mean the adoption of Arab gender customs.

Chapter 12 - The Mongols

     The Mongols, a group of nomads in northern Eurasia, were founded by Genghis Khan (known as Temujin) in 1206. Women could rule in the Mongol empire, and different religions were embraced. The Mongols conquered the Tanggut, Jin and parts of Iran under Genghis Khan's rule. His son, Ogodei, took over most of China, his grandson Batu took Russia, and his grandson Guyuk executed the last Abbasid caliph.
     The Yuan empire was formed by Kublai Khan, Genghis' grandson. They destroyed the Song and all of Vietnam due to their military might. They used mounted archers, armies on foot, and flaming projectiles to conquer almost all of Asia within a few decades.
     Marco Polo, on his expedition from Italy, brought more trade between the east and the west. Unfortunately, this trade included diseases - the plague, typhus, influenza and smallpox traveled the trade routes through Eurasia in the 1200's.
     The Ilkhan state was formed by Hulegu, Genghis' grandson, in Persia, and the Batu, another grandson, founded the Golden Horde in what is now Russia. Batu adopted Islam and the Turkish language. Islam conflicted with Mongol ideals, but the philosopher Ghazan converted the empire after showing Islam's advantages. The Ilkhan's poor economy allowed the Golden Horde to become powerful. Timur, a ruler of the Jagadi Khanate (a Khanate is just an empire started by the descendants of Genghis Khan), took over Iran and began to expand his empire, bringing Islam to new areas in Asia along with contributing significantly to mathematics (thinking up decimals and the concept of pi).
     Alexander Nevskii, the ruler of Russia, joined the Mongols in fighting the Teutonic Knights, a group that wanted to Christianize the Slavic people.The Mongols turned on their allies and devastated Russia, but the Russian culture survived. The decline of the Golden Horde moved power away from Kiev and into Novgorod and Moscow. It also paved the way for the rise of the czars, the new rulers of Russia. Ivan III was the first czar, tasking control in 1462.
     The Khans reunited China, making Beijing the capital and putting the Mongols on the top of the class system. They systematized the government and allowed trade routes to grow. Internal problems (mainly rebellions) caused their fall to the Ming in 1368.
     Hongwu, the first Ming emperor, made many anti-Mongol policies that were later reversed by other rulers. Yongle, his successor, reestablished trade and sent explorers to the Middle East by sea. He reestablished Confucian policies and changed the governmental system.
     The invasion of the Mongols devastated Korea. The Yi dynasty took over when the Mongols moved on to Japan. In Japan, the Mongols ended the Kamakura Shogunate and allowed the rise of the Ashikaga (which the Onin War nearly destroyed). The warring state of Annam avoided the Mongols' conquering, and went on to take over the Champa and institute their own Confucian practices.

Chapter 11 - Peoples & Civilizations of the Americas

      The Maya, a people of Guatemala, Honduras, Belize and southern Mexico, took the area over after the fall of the civilization at Teotihuacan. The people there had practiced human sacrifice and built huge pyramids to their gods. The Maya were never a formal state, but they used their power to increase their territory in the Americas. The Maya used slash-and-burn agriculture and "floating fields" on lakes to produce enough food to feed those in their city-states. They decorated a lot of their buildings, some with stories or legends and some with their calendar, which was a brilliant system for the time. They invented a writing system, the concept of zero, and a solar & lunar calendar. The Maya's power declined due to a struggle for resources and wars that were taking place, and many of their cities were left abandoned.
     In c. 900, the Toltec people used military might to create an empire with its capitol at Tula. Their influence spread across Mexico, but they were soon surpassed by the Aztec.
     The Aztecs (Mexica) had the center of their civilization at Tenochtitlan, an island in Lake Texcoco. The Aztecs were a warlike people whose religion demanded that their main god, Huitzilopotchli, be continuously fed human hearts on altars. Despite their sacrificing, they still managed to form connections through trade (some of it was done through forced labor). Women were allowed some roles of power in Aztec culture - they could serve as shamans and rulers (ruling was rare).
     In North America, irrigation practices learned from Mesoamericans and cultivation of corn stimulated the development of the Hohokam and Anasazi. The Anasazi, the more notable of the two, centered their empire in the "Four Corners" states (Colorado, New Mexico, Utah and Arizona). In Chaco Canyon, they built entire cities with parts of them extending underground.
     The Hopewell (Ohio River chiefdoms) developed because of trade with the Anasazi and Hohokam. They developed their own religious practices and came to build religious mounds all over the Southwest. The Hopewell culture was continued by the Mississippians, who were based in Cahokia (near Saint Louis). Changes in the environment undermined the Anasazi and the Mississippians, leading to their demise.
     The Andes (we're back in South America now!) have varying climates - they have arid coastlines, cold highlands, and dense tropical forests. The cultures developed there based themselves on ayllus (family groups) and mit'as (rotating labor draft systems). From these people, the Moche civilization began in Peru. They had a strong military, good trade connections, and their own religion. The Tiwanaku and Wari peoples used their military power to take over the Moche empire and extended it to Bolivia.
     The Inca developed from a mixture of these peoples, and were able to take over because of their military capability. They used roads, irrigation and terracing to provide their empire with materials, but were weakened by civil wars. These civil wars occurred just as Europeans (mainly Spanish) were arriving, making conquering easier.

Chapter 10 - Inner and East Asia

     The Sui dynasty reunited China after its fall, but Li Shimin, the first of the Tang, took parts of it when a Sui ruler was killed. During his rule, Mahayana Buddhism became popular in the area between the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. Other nearby states entered a tributary system with China, where they allowed the emperor to rule them without being under his direct command.  Wu Zhao, a woman, was allowed to become emperor shortly before the fall of the Tang (their fall was due to the Chao Uprising and a rebellion led by a man named An Lushan).

A shoe for a bound foot. The optimum size was around three inches.

     For a period of time, the land was split between the Liao, Khitan and nomads in the north and the Song in the south. The Song were able to make advancements in math, technology, astronomy and medicine. They came up with the idea of fractions, found the North Star and the Crab Nebula, and invented gunpowder.  One of their most influential thinkers was Zhu Xi, who led the empire back towards Confucian concepts (neo-Confucianism). The Song dynasty brought along Zen Buddhism (now commonly practiced in Japan), the concept of credit, and movable type. Women had more freedoms in poorer areas - wealthy women even went to the extreme of breaking and then binding their feet for the sake of beauty, leaving them barely able to walk, and thus, dependent on men. *Side note: the practice of foot binding was not outlawed in China until 1912.*

Samurai

     In Korea, the Silla kingdom was formed, but was taken over by the Koryo in 918. Their religion depended on shamans, or religious leaders who could communicate with the spirits. However, they soon adopted Confucianism and Buddhism from their Chinese neighbors.
     Japan's civilization consisted of four islands that were unified by an unknown leader and centralized by the Yamato regime. Women were allowed to rule, the Fujiwara clan being one of the first to grant them this power. The Kamakura Shogunate came out on top after a civil war and created the first decentralized militaristic government, with the samurai warrior class created to help maintain control. The Tale of Gengi tells of life in court and family alliances, giving us a glimpse into Japanese life at the time.
     Vietnam was largely an agricultural society concentrated on growing rice. The Annam/Dai Viet people ruled in the north, while the Champa, their rivals, ruled in the south.

Sumatra

Java

     The Srivijaya lived on the island of Sumatra between 7 and 11 CE. They controlled India-China sea trade routes and had some of the only ports for stops between the countries. They were allied with groups of pirates who kept the waters safe (for some people), and had their agricultural center on the island of Java. The Srivijayan king declared himself a Bodhisattva after learning about Buddhism (Mahayana), but after the  Srivijaya's decline, the islands were taken over by Theravada Buddhism.

Chapter 9 - Christianity in Europe

     When Charlemagne took over as king of the Franks in Europe, he expanded his empire to all of Gaul and parts of Germany and Italy. This brought an intellectual revival in the conquered areas, which were known collectively as the Carolingian Empire.
     In the East, the Byzantine Empire was in control. They converted the empire to Christianity, infusing Roman law in with church doctrines. Arab armies soon tried to take over, with almost two-thirds of the Christians converting to Islam to escape persecution. At the same time, the religious leaders began to disagree with the Pope, eventually leading to the split between the Orthodox church and the Latin church, known as the Schism of 104. Women's status declined (except for during the brief period between 1028 & 1056 when they were allowed to rule beside their husbands), and the economy was one that followed Diocletian's Roman design. In Constantinople, the Hagia Sophia, a renowned cathedral, was constructed as a testament to the empire's mastery of architecture. It still stands today. Byzantine missionaries went east to spread their religion (and language) into other parts of Europe.

Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey

     The Carolingian empire (aka the Frankish - French - empire) was militarily effective, but when Charlemagne's son died in 843, the Treaty of Verdun split it into three parts (France, Burgundy and Germany). 
     Attacks on Great Britain and France were perpetrated by the Vikings from Scandinavia. William the Conqueror, a descendant of Vikings that had landed in Normandy, invaded England in 1066 and ended Anglo-Saxon domination there.
     European lands were split up into manors, self sufficient farming estates that were owned and run by a lord. The lord ruled over many serfs, who were agricultural workers bound to him by law. Land was often given to lords because of their military service and support. (This practice was known as feudalism). A parcel of this land was known as a fief, and the landowner was called a vassal. Women were allowed to own land and sometimes worked alongside men during this time.
     The papacy, or the Pope's office, set up canons (laws) governing the church and those affiliated with it. The papacy faced many challenges, especially when it came to controlling all of Europe's religions and eventually trying to spread Christianity throughout the continent. (Yes, Europe is one continent. I will be sticking with the normal seven continents, instead of the "big geography" ones covered in class). The Pope crowned the first Holy Roman Emperor in 962 to provide a secular guardian of Christian interests and spread power.
     The crowning of a Holy Roman (HR) Emperor created problems, however. The Investiture Controversy was a major dispute between the Popes and HR Emperors over who controlled bishops and imperial lands. This was solved by the Concordat of Worms, when HR Emperor Henry V gave the authority over bishops to the Pope. Loyalty to the Church still caused problems, however, most notably the burning of Thomas Becket by knights in the Canterbury Cathedral (now a popular pilgrimage site) for his loyalty to the Church over the crown.

Canterbury Cathedral

     Monasticism, living in a religious community set apart from the rest of the world (monks and nuns) was started by Benedict of Nursia in Europe. Along with studying religious texts, monks would copy and illuminate manuscripts, work in their gardens, and earn money that was donated to the community or the Church.

An illuminated manuscript

     In Kiev, the Rus people (Russians) were taken over by Varangian (Viking) raiders whom they had previously traded with. Their ruler Vladimir I adopted Orthodox Christianity and converted the area that he ruled.
     After 1000, population growth began in Western Europe. Cities grew independent with better plows and horse collars (efficient harnesses) to use in agriculture, thus reviving their economies. Northern Italy and Flanders became maritime trading centers, and gold coins eventually made a reappearance after a few hundred years of being out of use. The Crusades began around this time. The Crusades were essentially armed pilgrimages to the Holy Land (Israel) to take it back from the Muslims. This ended Europe's isolation and brought trade opportunities in as new cities were conquered.
     Pipe Urban II initiated the Crusades, which soon captured Jerusalem and split it into four parts. Though the Muslims counterattacked, they were not too successful. While the Crusaders viciously took over, they still observed times of truce according to Christian teachings - Lent (the 40 days before Easter) and Sundays. This was known as the Truce of G-d.
     Eleanor of Aquitaine, the mother of Richard the Lion-Hearted, was a prominent woman in the french court of the time. She ruled while her sons went on the Crusades (her husband had died), and was the most powerful woman in Europe at the time. The Islamic ideas that her sons brought back when they returned forever changed European society.

     *I have put a link to Mrs. Senecal's (the previous AP World teacher) website on the links page. Check it out - it has a whole lot of good information.*

Chapter 8 - The Rise of Islam

     Mecca, a west Arabian city, was the birthplace of the prophet Muhammad. Currently, the Ka'ba shrine

The Ka'ba shrine in Mecca.

is there, and it is a common pilgrimage site for Muslims. It is said to be the site where Abraham (who also goes by Avraham) was said to have almost sacrificed his son Isaac (Islam believes it to have been his other son, Ishmael - they were brothers who didn't get along very well. Isaac became the forefather of Judaism, and Ishmael became the forefather of Islam.) . The prophet Muhammad was said to have spoken to the Archangel Gabriel, who enlightened him about the true god, Allah. Earlier peoples believed in jinns (desert spirits) and shaitans (demons), but Muhammad preached about one god. Hos words were collected upon his death and turned into the Qur'an.
     Muhammad fled to the city of Medina when people began to dislike him, and formed an umma (an Islamic community). He eventually led a revolt and was given back his place in Medina. When he died, a caliph (a successor) was named to take control of his followers.
     There are five central "pillars" of Islam that are still followed to this day:

1.  Acknowledging one god (Allah).
2. Praying five times a day.
3. Fasting during Ramadan.
4. Giving to the poor.
5. Making a trip to Mecca at least once (called a hajj).

     A civil war over who was to become the caliph split the Islamic community in half - the Sunnis and the Shi'ites. This formed the Umayyid Caliphate, the first dynasty of rulers.
     The second caliph, Umar, took control of Syria and Egypt and invaded India and Anatolia. He prohibited Arabs from owning conquered land, and therefore,m was pretty popular with the conquered peoples. He was overthrown by the Abbasid Calpihate, who claimed to be descendants of Muhammad's uncle. They ruled from Baghdad and were eventually overthrown by Mongol invaders.
     The Abbasids adopted Persian customs and became more cosmopolitan (*Author's note: I know we all hate that word, but it is still a good descriptor of the empire.*) in a process called Persianization. This is around the time when 1,001 Arabian Nights was written, along with other works of literature. The empire declined as conversion to Islam sped up, possibly because of an expanding empire.
     In the ninth century, mamluks, Turkish military slaves, were not paid properly, so they started a rebellion and took over the government. A people known as the Buyids conquered the area, and left the caliph in control (but only as a puppet for their interests).
     The Fatimid dynasty was established in Tunisia and went on to conquer Egypt. They established Cairo and took independence from the rest of North Africa. Islam also rose in Spain, creating important cities such as Toledo, Cordoba and Seville. Several important religious scholars, like Judah Halevi and Maimonides (Judaism) and Ibns Hazm, Rushd, and Tufyal (Islam) studied in Islamic Spain. The Islamic religious scholars were called ulma, and they studied in madrasas (religious colleges - the Judaic equivalent is a yeshiva, if that helps any of you understand).
     The Turks took the land stretching from Afghanistan to Baghdad and caused a population decline there (as well as in Mesopotamia), eventually encountering and taking over the Fatimid Empire. The Christian Crusades took over Jerusalem in 1099. Mongol invasions destroyed the Abbasid Empire's land. Overall, this was a time of destruction.
     In Muslim society, the Qur'an and hadith (words of Muhammad) were studied and written into law (called Shariah law). Conversion to Islam was easy, and often included moving into Islamic communities. Cities grew at this time in Muslim areas (Nishapur, Kufa and Basra) and shrank in Christian and Jewish areas (Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria).
     Astronomy became popular and mystic groups (called Sufi Brotherhoods) were formed. Women's rights declined, but they were treated better than their Christian counterparts (largely because they could get some inheritance from their fathers). Homosexuality was seen as bad, and slaves could be taken (though not if they were Jewish, Christian, Muslim or Zoroastrian - called "People of the Book", since they all had religious texts. This was only allowed if they were prisoners of war.).
    

     Author's note: A lot of the material in this chapter and in previous chapters has been about religion. If anyone needs help understanding it or relating it to what they believe, please let me know & I'll do my best to help you.

Chapter 7 - Exchange and Trade

     When Chinese General Zhang Jian crossed the desert into Northeastern Iran, he began what soon was known as the Silk Road. By 100 BCE, Greeks could buy silk from China via the road through Persia. The Scythians, located north of the Black and Caspian Seas, started using carts for trade along the Silk Road, and nomads traded as they traveled. New crops (such as alfalfa and wine grapes), medicines and products traveled the Silk Road. The Turkish even found a way to move their homes (yurts) as they traveled.

Yurt in Turkmenistan, 1913

     One empire in the Middle East that took advantage of the Silk Road was the Sansid - Iranians who took over Mesopotamia, defeating the Parthians and crowning their own leader as Shah (king - more on shahs in Chapter 8). The Sansids were warrior nomads, whose religion, Zoroastrianism, permeated the peoples' lives.
     Religions also spread along the Silk Road. Manichaeism believed in the cosmic struggle between good and evil, and Nestorian Christians claimed that Mary was not the mother of G-d but of the human prophet Jesus (If anyone needs clarification on that, let me know. Don't worry, I had to explain the concept of Santa Claus to someone last year. Don't be embarrassed to ask!) Jews moved into China, and Buddhism spread. Christianity moved into the Arabian Peninsula, where it would soon become the basis for Islam.
     Besides the Silk Road, the Indian Ocean Maritime System was a great help to trading. It spread across the Indian Ocean to the South China Sea, including the Malay Islands, Indonesia, India, Persia and Arabia, and fostered the Indonesian move to Madagascar (the big island off the coast of Africa). Pearls, frankincense and myrrh, along with many different types of spices traveled this route. Although mainly over water and isolated from desert areas, the port of Apologus (aka Ubulla, aka Basra) allowed for products to be moved from the Persian Gulf to Baghdad, in ancient Babylon.
     The Eastern part of the trade route was more hospitable, and many trading merchants settled down and started families there. This brought bilingual and multicultural families, with women as the mediators between cultures.
     Trans-Saharan caravan routes sprang up to cross the desert, linking North and Sub-Saharan Africa. Rock paintings in the area tell us that the herding of cows played a major role in agriculture, but was then replaced by horses, and then horses and chariots. This led archaeologists to believe that Minoan or Mycenaean refugees had come to the area, bringing chariots with them. There have been no chariots found in the area (as of the writing of the book), so we can only speculate. While conquering Romans supplied Italy with goods in the North of Africa, the belt below the Sahara, called the Sahel, was rich with trade.
     What to know about Sub-Saharan Africa:

• Few external contacts because of geography
• Steppes - treeless plains
• Savanna - tropical or subtropical grassland
• Rain forests DO exist in Africa
• Large and diverse area

     Sub-Saharan Africans were likely driven together by droughts, and became ruled by kings. Social categories were formed, such as laborers and farmers. but these categories were seen as even (not a hierarchy). Copper working began in Niger, and by the second century BCE, agriculture was common. While smelting of iron was discovered in Anatolia by the Hittites, the practice somehow reached Sub-Saharan Africa. Archaeologists are not sure how, as the two areas did not trade with each other.       
     The Bantu people were a large group that spoke similar language sin Sub-Saharan Africa, located near present-day Cameroon and Nigeria. They are lumped together as one people though they spoke different languages and were quite diverse.
  
  With different ways to trade, ideas and practices spread all over the known world. Pigs, first domesticated in Southeast Asia, became a ceremonial food in other places, possibly being worshiped in Iran and eventually entering Islam and Judaism as a "non-halal" and "non-kosher" food. Coins, first from Lydia, began to appear elsewhere. Buddhism spread by Ashoka and Kanishka, from India and Kush, and the Chinese pilgrim Faxian promoted it as well. Christianity eventually confronted Islam in the Middle East, starting a conflict that we can still see today.
     Armenia (East Turkey) was fought over between the Iranians and the Mediterranean peoples for control of the Silk Road. It eventually opened up to Christianity, allowing the religion to spread further. In Ethiopia, the Kingdom of Aksum spread Christianity to Egypt and Nubia, becoming a key political and economic power from the Red Sea to Yemen.

Africa: North and Sub-Saharan

         Terms:

•      "Great traditions" - traditions shared by elites from all over, such as writing, legal/belief systems, ethics, and intelligence attitudes

•     "Small traditions" - local customs/beliefs

AP Video

 

Here's a video about AP classes, as suggested to us by Mr. Gerfers. 

Keep up the good work, everyone!

Review for Chapter 2/3 Quiz

1. The Late Bronze Age was __________ (you had to be paying attention in class to know this).
2. What was the North African colony settled by the Phonecians?
3. Who developed iron tools & chariots?
4. What is the modern capital of Sudan?
5. What civilization was on the island of Crete?
6. Who was the Assyrian god?
7. Where did most knowledge of this era come from?
8. The Hebrew religion ("Judaism, get it right!!!" Rachel says to add) has how many gods?
9. Who practiced child sacrifice?
10. What is a diaspora?

Answers: 

Minoan bull leaping depicted in Knossos

• Cosmopolitan
• Carthage
• The Hittites
• Khartoum
• The Minoans
• Ashur
• The Library of Ashurbanipal
• One
• The Carthaginians
• "Dispersal" - it's Greek

Chapter 6 - India and Ancient Asia

     The Indian subcontinent is made up of basins, mountains and a peninsula, and is influenced by monsoons (seasonal rains/winds that help with agriculture).
     From 1500 - 500 BCE, India was in the Vedic age. The Vedas, our main source of information about the time, were a group of religious texts that told us about life in India. There were two types of social divisions: jatis, the castes and birth groups, and varnas, the class system of priests, warriors, merchants/farmers and laborers, eventually joined by the "untouchables" at the bottom of the system. Many jatis were contained in a single varna. The higher groups feared "contamination" from the lower groups, especially the untouchables.
     The Vedic religion was male-based and centered around sacrifice. Jainism provided another option and challenged the Vedic religion. It taught that distancing yourself from the world gave "moksha" (liberation) and that you should practice strict nonviolence and eat only what you were given. As a result, many early Jainists starved to death.
     Buddhism gave yet another option. It taught the 4 Noble Truths:

1. All  life is pain and suffering.
2. The cause of suffering is want.
3. Suffering can be cured in Nirvana (paradise).
4. Following the 8-Fold Path will lead you to Nirvana.

The 8-Fold Path stresses having correct:

Theravada monk

1. Views
2. Intentions
3. Speech
4. Actions
5. Livelihood
6. Effort
7. Mindfulness
8. Concentration (by meditating)

Buddhism is divided into two different types: Theravada, the more traditional (the orange-robed monks), and Mahayana, the more progressive (with shrines, saints and monasteries). Buddhists built stupas, pyramid-like structures to worship at.
     Hinduism also appeared in India during the Vedic age. Hinduism focuses on the gods Shiva, Vishnu and Devi, all talked about in the main religious text, the Bhagavad-Gita. Hinduism allowed many forms of worship.
     Chandragupta Maurya first unified most of the subcontinent in 324 BCE in the start of the Mauryan Empire. The Empire grew wealthy from trade, iron and taxes on agriculture. Ashoka, its third ruler, converted the empire to Buddhism before its collapse in 184 BCE.
     The next few years were spent under Greco-Bactrian, Shaka, and Kushan occupation. During this time, the Iliad of India, the Mahabharata, was written and the Tamil Kingdoms came to power, stressing epics, poetry and the performing arts. The Gupta Empire was the next to take over with military and cultural control. It is a classic example of a theater-state, one which acquires prestige based upon its culture and ceremonies (this sounded pretty important!). There was a loss of women's rights during the Gupta Empire, with some girls being married off at six or seven and the principle of sati, a widow burning herself to death on her husband's funeral pyre. The Gupta Empire collapsed in 550 CE.

     Southeast Asia is mainly made up of Indochina, the Malay Peninsula and thousands of islands. Its climate and natural resources allowed for populations to grow very large. It had a strong Hindu/Buddhist culture because of being on trade routes, and its rulers used Indian knowledge and culture as a basis for their own, allowing them to enhance their power by using what worked for others.
     In the modern-day rice-growing regions of Vietnam, the Funan society grew to control trade across the Malay Peninsula. It was at its height in the fifth and sixth centuries, but gradually declined when trade routes began to shift.

     Wonder what it's like being a Buddhist monk? Try meditating. Find a quiet spot and try to think about one thought for five minutes without getting distracted or sidetracked. Can you do it? Those of you who had AP Human Geo last year probably will do better, since we did this in the religion chapter. :)

Chapter 5 - Imperial China

     By 221, the Qin Dynasty (I apologize now if I spell it "Quin" and I don't catch it) conquered all of China. Shi Huangdi, the "First Emperor", as he liked to be called, burned books written by Confucius and all who opposed him. He attacked nomads in the north, who formed the Xiongnu Confederacy (they threatened China for years). Shi Huangdi made military service compulsory, and when he died, was buried with a terracotta army numbering in the thousands.
     Gaozou, the first Han emperor, took over after a rebellion. He gave land grants to the people, and appeased the Xiongnu with gifts (they later disintegrated in the mid 1st century). His son Wu took over and laid the foundation for the Silk Road (they'll be coming up later). He also started a salt, iron and alcohol monopoly and adopted Confucianism. His astrologer, Sima Qian, is considered the father of Chinese history -  he stated writing history down and recorded a lot of what we know about early China.
     The Chinese had a patriarchal society, and women were usually discouraged from doing much of anything substantial. Their situation differed by status, but overall, they had less freedoms than Roman women in the same time period. Beneath the wealthiest aristocrats, there was the gentry, a class that the Emperor chose his administrative officials from. They were well educated and respected for their wisdom. A 2-year military service was made mandatory in the Han Dynasty.
     The capital in the Qin & early Han Dynasties was Chang'an, in central China. It is still around (going by Xi'an now), but it is no longer the magnificent city it was in early imperial China. The aristocrats focused on entertainment there, and tiger fights were never missed.
     China at this time gained a wealth of knowledge - they studied astrology, made roads and canals, invented the watermill to assist in building and grinding plants, invented paper, and in the first century, started studying Buddhism, which originated in India four hundred years before.
     In 9 CE, Wang Mang seized power and started to better the economy, but was stopped by a flood of the Yellow River that was so destructive that the river paved a new path through the empire. After the Uprising of the Red Eyebrows, the Han were back in control, but their corrupt government, combined with economic problems and disloyalty in the military caused their collapse. General Cao Cao (pronounced "tsow tsow") officially ended the Han empire near 220 CE.  This threw China into a period of political fragmentation and pushing the heart of the Chinese culture towards the Yangtze River area.
    
     Thanks to everyone who used this site when we had to do Cornell notes (eew!) in class the past few days, and to those who used it as a source in their essays. Here is a panda for all of your good work... keep it up!

Chapter 5 - Rome

  

Roman aqueducts allowed water to be moved into cities.

      As legend goes, Rome was founded by an orphan named Romulus, raised by wolves. However, no one knows what really happened.
     The centers of the government were the Forum (civic center) and the Senate with its Council of Elders. In the Republic (from 507 - 31 BCE), the Consul, the top two elders of the Senate, lead many decisions.
     Land was the basis of wealth in Rome, with the elite (called "patricians") owning most of the land and the common people getting smaller parcels. Women in Rome had a lot more freedom than their Greek counterparts, and played important roles in society. Religion at first focused on numina, the natural forces, and was practiced in natural areas. It was believed that there was a pax decorum, literally "peace of the gods" in place... this was believed to be a covenant between the gods and the people granting safety if the priests offered regular sacrifices. Soon the Greek deities were equated with (Zeus = Juno, ex.), and the pantheon expanded.
     Rome reached its peak in the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE, when it had a powerful army which conquered the surrounding tribes and accepted them (unlike Greece's plan of conquer-and-enslave). Rome fought Carthage twice and came out as the undisputed ruler of the Mediterranean, conquering Sicily, Sardinia, Spain and Gaul. Officials were chosen there by political connections with the capital city.
     Latifundas, broad estates/ranches were important to the empire, but they declined when military service became required. Gauis Marius took soldiers into the army and promised them land, which soon brought work back to farms.
     The emperors Sulla, Pompey, Caesar, Antony and Octavian fought many civil wars, resulting in the Roman Principate (31 BCE - 330 CE), which was really just a fancy name to disguise Octavian's (he was also called Augustus) military dictatorship. Augustus brought Egypt, parts of the Middle East and Central Europe into the empire and formed a core of merchants (called equites) who helped to pay for the running of the empire. This created the first bureaucracy.
     Emperors were chosen by the Senate, but in all actuality, it was really the military who selected them. During the Principate, the Emperor was one of the main sources of laws, and he held a lot of power.
     Upper-class Romans lived in huge homes in the cities, and they owned villas elsewhere for vacation. The poor, however, built slums in the cities and tended to "tenant farm" in the country. The country was a far cry from the filled-to-the-brim-with-politicians cities... the only official who was regularly seen was the tax collector.
     In 212 CE, Emperor Caracalla gave citizenship to all free men, but persecution still occurred. After the death of Jesus (prophet, messiah, politician, or crazy man, it's up to you to decide) the spread of Christianity was lead by a man named Paul, who brought it to Rome. Emperor Constantine eventually converted the empire.
     During the Third Century Crisis (235 - 284 CE), political, economical and military turmoil, frequent shifts in power, civil wars and invasions caused the near-destruction of Rome, but all was saved by Emperor Diocletian, who reformed the economy and put people back to work.
     The Western half of the empire fell in 476, but the eastern empire continued their control of the area.
Some words to know:

• Pax Romana - "Roman peace"; safety and stability given by Roman power in the area
• Romanization - the spread of Latin and the Roman culture, which was strong in the Western provinces (Greek culture was more common in the East)
• Aqueducts - long conduits that carried water 
• Parthia - the heirs to Mesopotamia and the Persian Empire; the long-standing enemy of Rome

Greece and Iran - Chapter 4

     The Iranians started out as a group with a similar language and culture in what is now Iran, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan. The Medes people (Medes is a city there) were the first to achieve a complex political structure, and they conquered the Assyrians (who, if you remember from earlier, managed to conquer a lot of the region) in the 7th century BCE.
     Cyrus united the Persians and overthrew the Medeans, taking their land and expanding the empire with his son Cambyses' conquest of Egypt.
     The Persian society was based on patriarchy (the father was the head of the family). Persia was divided into warriors, priests and peasants. Under Darius I, the empire expanded into Greece and Pakistan. Satraps, the local governors, ruled the regions and brought taxes to the king's ceremonial capital, Persepolis. The empire under Darius I followed Zoroastrianism, which was the predecessor of Judaism and Christianity. It held that the god, Ahuramazda, was opposed to a force of evil, called Angra Mainyu. Zoroastrianism venerated nature.
     The Mycaeans were destroyed in 1500 BCE, which threw Greece into a Dark Age of depopulation, poverty, and relative isolation. Around 800 BCE, the Phoenicians brought new ideas into Greece when they decided to expand their trade routes, starting what is known as the Archaic Period.
      Greece was ruled by polises - city-states, which had an urban center and agricultural land. The acropolis was the top of the city, where people would meet in emergencies, while the agora was where government decisions were made (and where the marketplace was).
     Greece perfected the use of a hoplite army - one that fought in a close formation with lots of armor. Hoplite armies were mainly farmers, who required little training and worked between seasons.
     Greece started colonies to reduce the population in its core, and began to coin money in the sixth century BCE. In the late 7th and early 6th centuries BCE, tyrants took control of the city-states by seizing power and holding it by violating normal procedures (while taking advantage of citizens' money). These tyrants were one of the reasons that democracy started.
     The ancient Greeks believed in a pantheon of gods, with Zeus as the main one. Sacrifices were important, and communication with the gods could occur with the help of priestesses or the Oracle at Delphi.
     During this time, an emphasis on individuality and history occurred. Herodotus, the first true historian, published Histories, a chronicle of wars.
     The two main cities of the time were the democratic Athens and the militaristic Sparta (the fear of rebellion made authorities start a militaristic life for the people, with boys taken into the army at seven).
     Pericles, a government official, oversaw the transfer to democracy, helped to build the Acropolis, and was involved in the Peloponnesian War (more on that later).
     An uprising of the Greeks under the Persians, called the Ionian War, ended up failing and resulting in two attacks on Greece in the fifth century (the attacks were called the Persian War).
     Athens ended up taking control of the Aegean navy and using its money to subsidize their democracy and culture. Women and slaves were exploited, allowing the men to have more time to be involved in the government and politics. The Spartans and their allies started the Peloponnesian War because they feared Athens' power. They only won because of help from the Persians.
     King Philip II made Macedonia (part of modern-day Greece, Macedonia, Serbia, Albania and Bulgaria) into a military power and united the city-states into a strong empire in the fourth century BCE. His son Alexander the Great conquered and took over the Persian empire. When Alexander died, a half century of power struggles started. This was called the Hellenistic age because of lands in NE Africa and W Asia coming under Greek (Hellenistic) control.
     In Egypt, Alexandria became the world's greatest city. It was the center of commerce in the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean, it started a museum and a library, and made advances in science, technology and medicine.
     Members of the native population of Greece learned Greek and took on some of the Greek customs to be a part of the ruling class. Greeks borrowed from Egyptian and Mesopotamian culture, and gave their citizens many freedoms, even for minority groups, such as the Jews.

Chapter 3 - The Iron Age

      The Iron Age began with the advent of (you guessed it!) iron being used in tools instead of bronze, mainly because iron was not an alloy and it could be found in many places.
     In late Bronze Age Mesopotamia, cultures and lifestyles were shared, and peasant life was improving.By 1500 BCE, the Babylonians had risen to power in the south, and the Assyrians had taken the north.
     The Hittites, the first people to master iron working, were from Turkey. They established power in Anatolia (Turkey) and Syria in the late Bronze Age with a wealth in metals and a strong military. They vied with New-Kingdom Egypt (we'll talk about them later) for control over Syria and Palestine before falling to unknown attackers in circa 1200 BCE. The Hittites used cuneiform and were highly influenced by Mesopotamian culture.
     In 1640 BCE, Egypt was ruled by the Hyksos, the Princes of Foreign lands, who had taken over with the use of the chariot and the composite bow. The pharaohs Kamose and Ahmose started the New Kingdom in 1532 BCE, which was both aggressive and expansive (especially in trying to control Nubia).
     Some Pharaohs to Know:

• Hatshepsut - she became pharaoh when her husband died and led a successful reign
• Akhenaten/Amenhotep IV - he is the alleged "creator" of monotheism (at least in this book - this will be that answer for the exam, if they ask about the creator of monotheism); he changed Egypt's religion from following many gods under the supreme god Akhen to worshiping one god, Amen (Amun). He was married to Queen Nefertiti. 
• Tutankhamen - he ruled and died at a very young age and is known for the riches discovered in his tomb
• Ramses II - he reigned for 64 years and had over 100 children. His Egypt specialized in metal trad using horses and camels

     The ancient Greek civilization began with the Minoans in Crete. The fortified city of Mycenae was the first site to be excavated there, so it is known as the Mycenaean empire (I apologize now for any times I spell that wrong in the future). The Mycenaeans used a language called Linear B, which was an ancestor of Greek. The Minoans and Mycenaeans were known for their sailing and ship trade in slaves, pottery, oil and wine. They imported things from all over the region, showing that they were well connected. While the Hittites were conquered and the Egyptians surrendered lands after years of attacks, the Mycenaeans built forts to protect their cities. These forts bought them time, but they were eventually destroyed by invaders. Their economic connections increased their vulnerability - once their trading partners were taken over, they only had a matter of time.
     The Assyrians expanded to cover the area from Anatolia to Iran. All people served the king, and propaganda was used to gain military support for the government, to the point where professional soldiers were hired. The rebellious were deported en mass, with up to four million people being relocated. The government used its cities as tight centers of control to exploit the area's wealth. The Assyrians valued knowledge and built large educational institutions, with the Library of Ashurbanipal being the most well known (to historians... I doubt we've ever heard of it).
     Ancient Israel began with Abraham (who goes by Avraham too) and his descendents accepting a monotheistic religion. They soon were put into slavery in Egypt, but left hundreds of years later and accepted the Torah (yes, I know, the book calls it the "Hebrew Bible"... but it's the Torah). The twelve tribes of Israel divided, and trouble with the neighboring Philistines started.
     Saul became the first king of Israel, with David taking over after Saul was killed in battle. Solomon, David's son, built the First Temple to consolidate religious and secular authority in what is known as the golden age for ancient Israel.
     Extended families were important in Israeli society, with male heirs being needed to carry on the family's business. Women were respected, but could not own property or divorce their husbands.
     After King Solomon died (around 920 BCE), Israel split into Israel (in the North) and Judah (in the south). They were soon crushed by the Assyrians, sending the Jewish people into the Diaspora, which strengthened their cultural identity.
     Phoenicia (which called itself Canaan) dominated the Mediterranean while Israel was still one kingdom. It specialized in sea commerce, and developed an early form of writing to keep track of trade. Phoenicia was ruled by a bunch of city-states, the most notable Sidon and Tyre.
     By 700 BCE, the Phoenician Triangle (of trade) spanned all of North Africa, the Spanish coast, and many Italian islands. Carthage, a city in modern-day Tunisia, was a part of this triangle. Carthage was a commercial and naval power, but was crushed by Rome in the third century BCE. It used chosen judges as heads of state, had a well trained navy, and kept watchtowers over all of its ports. Carthage controlled a belt of agricultural land in North Africa, which it used to grow food (well, the slaves grew it).
     The Carthagenians worshiped many gods - the main god was one who controlled the storms and had to be appeased by sacrificing children.
     All of these civilizations fell to Assyria, but the large territory weakened the state and the Neo-Babylonians and Medes (from Iran) took over in 612 BCE and resulted in the depopulation of Northern Mesopotamia. However, this resulted in a cultural renaissance in Babylonia.


     Please review the key questions at the beginning (and the ones that the end) of the chapters to make sure that you've got the main points. I will be putting up chapter four sometime soon (I hope), since we need to move quickly to catch up to where we are supposed to be.  I would prefer to be ahead and help you with writing essays than be behind. Let me know what you think so far!

The Olmec and Chavin - Chapter 2

     The population of the Americas began through the Siberia-Alaska land bridge near 18-14,000 BCE.
     The Olmec (1200 - 400 BCE) were based in Southern Mexico. They created extensive agricultural plans for their fields, a wide range of trade, ceremonial centers, and monuments. Centers of industry at La Venta, San Lorenzo, and Tres Zapotes exchanged products such as salt, chocolate, limestone, and clay.
     Large platforms were used in ceremonies and as bases for houses. Little is known about Olmec politics, but kings are suggested by giant statues of stone heads. The Olmec worshiped may gods, who could change into animal forms at will. Shamans (those who could contact the gods) were essential to Olmec religion.
     From observing the starts, the Olmec created a calendar that was later expanded upon by the Maya.

Nubia and the Celts - Chapter 2

     Nubia, called Kush by the Egyptians, was the 1,000 mile stretch of Nile Valley that became the only continuously inhabited territory to connect the North and South of Africa.
     Egyptian rulers sought to dominate Nubia for its gold, resulting in the rise of civilizations in the area. Nubia was always influenced by Egypt and its practices.
     The Kingdom of Meroe (800 - 350 BCE) rose after Egyptian power began to decline. In fact, Nubian kings sometimes ruled Egypt during this period. In 701 BCE, Nubians offered aid to Assyrian-occupied Palestine, but the Assyrians invaded Egypt and drove the Nubians south. Due to this invasion, Nubia moved the capital to Meroe in Southern Egypt.
     Women played an important role in Nubian society, even ruling on their own. Meroe itself was a huge city, the center of agriculture and trade for Nubia. Nubia collapsed in the fourth century CE due to nomad raiders and shifting trade routes. 
     

Early China - Chapter 2

     East Asia has different weather conditions in different areas, making agriculture possible only by the combined efforts of many people.
     During the Shang Period (1750 - 1045 BCE), the Chinese grew millet, raised pigs and chickens, perfected stone tools, made pottery, and started to make silk. The Shang dynasty pioneered writing in Asia, so we see it as the first real ruling dynasty of China.
     The Shang writing system was an ancestor of modern Chinese. All court records were kept in Shang on cattle bones (called "oracle bones" by historians). Many parts of the Shang religion were recorded, such as the sky god Di (who people joined when they died). Like the Egyptians, the Shang saw their ruler as a link with the gods.
     The Shang elite were warriors who reveled in drinking and battle. Their cities were not well preserved, due to climate and conquest, but records show that the capital moved around a lot.
     In the mid-11th century BCE, the Zhou took over, led by Wen and his son Wu. Wu saw himself as "the son of Heaven" and declared that Heaven could take away power from rulers who were not being just towards their people (this was known as the Mandate of Heaven, and was very useful for keeping Wu on the throne). Much more is known about his period because of the written records. It was during the Zhou period that Feng Shui, the art of setting things on a harmonious order, began.
     The Zhou perfected warfare by putting warriors on horseback. During the Spring and Autumn Period (the first part of the Zhou reign), the different Chinese states were frequently at odds with each other.
     Confucianism, which focused on its founder's teachings, spread wildly during this period. Confucius supported respect for rituals, ancestors, and gods, and felt that the supernatural was unknowable. Confucianism's main rival, Daoism (or Taoism), founded by Lao Zi, focused on tranquility and nature. During this time, clans moved to a three-family structure (grandparents, parents and grandchildren).
     The second half of the period, called the Warring States Period (481 - 221 BCE) got its name from frequent power struggles. The Qin state maintained that the Confucians were wrong and that rulers should disregard subjects' opinions. Rather, they believed that total control was necessary. The Qin government broke up estates and took away nobles' privileges to keep control over the people.

Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley - Chapter 1

     In modern Iraq, between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers, the Fertile Crescent - aka Mesopotamia - started to use irrigation to water plants, oxen to pull plows, and other animals for herding during the First Agricultural revolution. The people who lived there were called Sumerians, and they spoke Semitic languages (such as Hebrew). self-governing city-states farmed or specialized in production and were ruled by priests an kings. King Sargon (2350 BCE) united these smaller kingdoms into one kingdom. A new city at Babylon was formed and ruled by a later king named Hammurabi, who set up early laws. Trade was essential in these cities.
     Three social classes emerged - the free (such as the kings and priests), the farmers and merchants (less free because of ties to others) and the slaves. Scribes began to write down records, and women were treated as second-class citizens.
     Sumerian gods represented forces of nature and were worshiped in temples with ziggurats (pyramid like structures) at the center. Sacrifices were common, and many people wore amulets to protect themselves from demons or magic.
     Mesopotamians began to write around 3300 BCE in cuneiform (a wedge shaped alphabet). They also began to make bronze, clay dishes, horse drawn chariots for war, and invented a number system.

     Egypt formed along the Nile river, whose flooding left behind dirt that was great for farming. Egypt spread to encompass a large area in a few thousand years. It had many natural resources like clay, stone, and papyrus, and a gradual change in climate allowed parts of the Sahara desert to be farmed.
     Thirty dynasties of kings formed the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. Pharaohs (kings) were buried in pyramids or the Valley of the Kings, since they were believed to be a human form of Horus, the son of Ra (aka Re, the main god, who controlled the Sun). Gods came and went according to who was in charge at the time. People were mummified in an attempt to preserve them for the afterlife, and they were given copies of "The Book of the Dead", a helpful handbook to getting through the challenges of the afterlife (such as lakes of fire...).
     Memphis and Thebes were the capitals in the Old (Memphis), the Middle, and New (Thebes) Kingdoms. Scribes there kept records in heiroglyphics (picture writing) on papyrus paper. Fighting over the next king often occured and separated the country.

     The Indus Valley civilization centered in Pakistan and parts of India, with the important cities at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. More tools were made here than in Egypt and Mesopotamia, which both preferred to make jewelery (and had more gold). Trade was widespread and even went as far as Mesopotamia.
     People in the Indus Valley were advanced in ceramics, irrigation and the construction of uniform cities. Not much is known about their religion or political systems, but in 1900 BCE, towns in the Indus Valley began to decline, possibly due to natural disasters or climate change.

     Review Q's:

• How did religion control Egyptian life?
• How was Mesopotamia governed?
• Why do you think the Indus Valley collapsed?

     

The Stone Age - Chapter 1

      The Epic of Gilgamesh was a story that told us about civilization in ancient Mesopotamia, defined as: 1) cities, 2) political systems based on land, 3) many people with jobs other than farming, 4) status based on wealth, 5) building, 6) keeping records, 7) long-distance trade and 8) advances in art and science.
     The earliest civilizations formed around river valleys, which provided water and good farmland. they formed their own cultures, which included twelve factors: a language, education, tolerance of others, art, clothing, agriculture, technology, gender relations, music, architecture, religion and food (*memory tip - the 12 parts of culture in this order spell out  LET A CAT GMARF. The AP Exam may have a question asking about the parts of culture in a civilization.*).
     The Stone Age lasted up to 4,000 years ago, and included the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age) ages. People mainly hunted and gathered their food, and often moved around a lot to follow it. They made temporary shelters as they moved. Your image of an animal-skin-wearing caveman would fit in here.
     Due to climate changes, the Neolithic Revolution occurred around ten thousand years ago. It can also be referred to as the First Agricultural Revolution. Over generations, starting in the Middle East, farming of wheat began, followed by sorghum (like wheat) in Africa, rice in Asia, and corn in the Americas. Animals were tamed and used for farm work. In the dryer parts of Africa, people began to herd animals for food and money (this was called Pastoralism). Farming helped to increase the population of the ancient world.
     Societies were based on kinship (family) links, often known as clans or lineages. During this time, religion focused on nature. This is the time when monoliths (literally "big stones") like Stone Henge were built.
     Two cities you need to know are Jericho (on the Jordan river) and Catal Huyuk (In Turkey. *Memory tip - both cattle and turkey are animals. Use this to remember the location of the city. Moo!*). Both cities were large for the time and had people with specialized jobs. Catal Huyuk was very focused on art and religion, and working of metals and agriculture was important to both cities.
     In the next part of the chapter, we will be looking at three river valleys. Some questions to consider:

• What achievements occurred in this period?
• What effect did the start of farming have?

Please answer and/or ask questions in the comments!

Introduction

     This website will be for all of us to learn and discuss what we need to know for the AP World History exam in May of 2014. I will be posting "re-teachings" of the lessons and the main points that you really need to know as soon as I can after each lesson is taught in school (sorry, you kind of have to go to my school to know what's going on!). I will have a chapter-by-chapter summary running as well.
     In regards to comments, they are all appreciated. When commenting, please leave your first name and last initial, so I know who I will be responding to (and who is paying attention!). Please do not give me any reason to remove your comments - nothing too suggestive, violent, or hate-filled, and please keep the profanity to a minimum. No putting others down - we are all here to learn.
     Feel free to look around the site. All comments are appreciated, and THERE ARE NO STUPID QUESTIONS. If you have a question, PLEASE ask so that I (or another commenter) can help clarify things for you. Please let me know if there is anything more that I can help you with!