Chapter 16 - Europe - 1500 - 1750

     In the 1500's, the papacy gained power and became more corrupt, with priests selling forgiveness of sins. Martin Luther started the Protestant Reformation in 1519 to oppose this act. He said that faith got you to Heaven, not wealth or acts. John Calvin, another big name in the Reformation, thought people were "predestined for Heaven." 

     In response to Luther's teachings, the Catholic Reformation clarified theology and reformed the training of priests. Philip II of Spain used the Spanish Inquisition (Catholic Reformation) to further Catholicism in his own country and abroad. France, another key player in global politics, allowed for the freedom to choose which church you followed. England, on the other hand, was largely guided by the king's choice. Henry VIII switched the country from Catholicism to Protestantism in order to legally divorce his wife.

Note the "Burnt for Witchcraft"

     It was around this time that the witch hunts started occurring. The Reformations and the overall turn to religious views increased suspicion of people practicing witchcraft and pagan religions, and many people were burned at the stake for allegedly being witches (or wizards). Burning is the punishment most often associated with witchcraft, but a total of around 35,000 people died in many different ways as a result of the witch hunts. Curiously, witch hunts did not end until well into the 1700's, and in some countries (especially where tribes are still an active part of the country's government) witch hunts still occur. 

     The Scientific Revolution was an intellectual movement in Europe that began with advances in astronomy but soon expanded to form the basis of all of modern science. Copernicus and his supporters (Brahe, Kepler, and Galileo) figured out that the Sun, not Earth, was the center of our solar system. Although they were disliked for their theory, they turned out to be right. The Enlightenment questioned conventional ideas of government and science (such as Earth being the center of the solar system). 

     All of these cultural revolutions allowed the bourgeoisie class to appear. They were wealthy people who specialized in commerce. (When social revolutions start to happen, we will hear more about them, so don't forget who they are.) Many bourgeoisie were involved in joint-stock companies - companies that sold stocks to decrease risks and spread benefits over a group of investors.

     In the 1590's, a century of cooler temperatures began. Although the temperatures dropped by only a few degrees, this was known as the Little Ice Age, affecting agriculture in Europe and increasing deforestation as people used more wood to heat their homes.

      The Hapsburg family of Austria became important in politics, with many of its members becoming Holy Roman Emperors, helping to stop the Ottomans from invading and increasing the power of kings. 

      King Charles I of England arrested critics and started the English Civil War in an attempt to grab power. He lost and was executed. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the English Bill of Rights of 1689 turned England into a constitutional monarchy with a balance of power (shared by the king and Parliament). Although it was the only major nation that did not maintain an army, England rose as a sea power under Henry VIII.

     Overall, high military costs drove monarchs to attempt a variety of tax and financial policies, the most successful being in the Netherlands and in England. Taxes and power expansion played a key role in the Anglo-Dutch Wars (between England and the Netherlands - England won.) and France's failed attempt to expand power by a unification with Spain.